Life-stage nutrition: preconception to end of life

TL;DR. "Eat real food, mostly plants, not too much" works for an average adult. It fails almost everyone else. Folate matters before you know you're pregnant. Iron matters when periods start. DHA (an omega-3 fat the brain needs) matters in late pregnancy and in your 70s and 80s. The Satter Division of Responsibility solves toddler feeding without fights. The LEAP trial in 2015 flipped 20 years of advice on peanuts. Sarcopenia (muscle loss with age) starts in your 40s and speeds up after 70. Older adults need more protein per kilogram than younger adults. Each life stage has its own key nutrients, screening tools, and ways things go wrong.

What you'll learn

• The 3-month window before pregnancy and what to start before you know.
• Calorie and nutrient needs by trimester, plus the pregnancy food-safety list.
• Lactation energy needs, postpartum thyroid, and nutrients tied to perinatal depression.
• Why the AAP and WHO recommend exclusive breastfeeding, and what to do when it isn't possible.
• The 6-12 month window for adding solids, baby-led weaning (BLW, letting babies self-feed soft finger foods), and the LEAP peanut reversal.
• Toddler food refusal and the Satter Division of Responsibility.
• Tanner stages (the 1-5 puberty scale), peak bone-mass years, and eating disorders in teens.
• Perimenopause, the estrogen drop at menopause, and the bone and body changes that follow.
• Sarcopenia, the older-adult protein debate, falling B12, and fall risk.
• Frailty and the shift to comfort feeding at end of life.

Priority-nutrient DRIs by life stage

Stage	Energy	Protein	Iron	Calcium	Vit D	Folate
Preconception F	—	0.8 g/kg	18 mg	1,000 mg	600 IU	400 mcg
Pregnancy T1/T2/T3	+0/+340/+450	1.1 g/kg	27 mg	1,000 mg	600 IU	600 mcg DFE
Lactation	+330–400	1.3 g/kg	9 mg*	1,000 mg	600 IU	500 mcg
Infant 0–6 mo	—	1.52 g/kg	0.27 mg	200 mg AI	400 IU	65 mcg AI
Toddler 1–3 yr	—	1.05 g/kg	7 mg	700 mg	600 IU	150 mcg
Child 4–8 yr	—	0.95 g/kg	10 mg	1,000 mg	600 IU	200 mcg
Adolescent 9–18	—	0.85 g/kg	15 F / 11 M	1,300 mg	600 IU	300–400
Adult 19–50	—	0.8 g/kg	18 F / 8 M	1,000 mg	600 IU	400 mcg
Adult 51–70	—	1.0–1.2 ideal	8 mg	1,200 F / 1,000 M	600 IU	400 mcg
Older adult 71+	—	1.0–1.2 g/kg	8 mg	1,200 mg	800 IU	400 mcg

*For mothers who are nursing full time and have not started periods again. Pregnancy DHA 200+ mg/day. Iodine 220 mcg in pregnancy, 290 in lactation, 150 elsewhere. RDA/AI per IOM/National Academies. Older-adult protein per PROT-AGE consensus.

1. Preconception (start 3 months before conception)

The biggest food choice of your life may happen before you know you're pregnant. The neural tube (the part of the embryo that becomes the brain and spinal cord) closes between days 21 and 28 after conception. That's before most women get a positive test. Folic acid (the vitamin form of folate, B9) at that point decides whether the tube closes right or fails. A failed close causes spina bifida, anencephaly, or encephalocele. The U.S. Public Health Service has told any woman who could get pregnant to take 400 mcg folic acid a day since 1992. In 1998, the U.S. added folic acid to enriched grain products. That cut U.S. neural-tube defect rates by about 35%. Women who had a prior pregnancy with a neural-tube defect take 4 mg a day, 10 times the standard dose.

Iodine is the second nutrient missed before pregnancy. Enough iodine in the first trimester drives fetal thyroid hormone and brain growth. Mild and moderate shortfalls tie to lower IQ in kids (Bath et al., Lancet 2013). Many U.S. prenatal vitamins still skip iodine. Non-iodized table salt (kosher, sea, "pink Himalayan") is the quiet cause.

DHA (a long-chain omega-3 fat) builds up fast in the fetal brain in the third trimester. The expert groups ISSFAL and EFSA recommend at least 200 mg a day through pregnancy and nursing. Two servings a week of low-mercury fatty fish covers it. Algae-based DHA works for vegetarians.

Stop alcohol before conception. The safe first-trimester dose is unknown. Stop cannabis too. The AAP's 2018 report found no prenatal level proven safe, and today's flower is about 5 times the THC of older studies. Caffeine should stay under about 200 mg a day. Choline (450 mg in pregnancy, 550 in nursing) gets flagged by the AAP and AMA as often too low. It's also missing at full dose from many prenatals. The richest food sources are eggs, beef liver, and soybeans.

2. Pregnancy by trimester

Calorie needs don't rise in the first trimester. They rise by about 340 kcal a day in the second and 450 in the third (IOM 2009). That's a peanut butter sandwich, not a second dinner. "Eating for two" overshoots by 4 times. Gaining more than the IOM 2009 ranges (25-35 lb if you start at a normal weight, 15-25 if overweight, 11-20 if obese, 28-40 if underweight) is the best-tested predictor of holding extra weight after birth, gestational diabetes (high blood sugar in pregnancy), a too-large baby at delivery, and child obesity later. Iron RDA jumps from 18 to 27 mg. Many clinics give 30-60 mg elemental iron up front and check ferritin (an iron-storage blood test) at 28 weeks. Good vitamin D status (25-OH D above 30 ng/mL) lowers risk of pre-eclampsia (a serious blood-pressure problem in pregnancy) and preterm birth in observational data.

Food safety in pregnancy is narrow. Listeria monocytogenes (a bacterium that grows in cold foods) is the main threat. Avoid soft cheeses from raw milk, unheated deli meats, refrigerated smoked seafood, raw sprouts, and unpasteurized juices. Pregnancy raises listeria risk 10-20 times, and the outcomes (stillbirth, newborn meningitis) are severe. Toxoplasma gondii (a parasite carried by cats and raw meat) drives the cat-litter and undercooked-meat advice. Methylmercury from big predator fish is the third hazard. The FDA/EPA 2017 advisory sorts fish into 3 groups. Best choices (salmon, shrimp, sardines, tilapia, pollock, catfish) at 2-3 times a week. Good choices (1 time a week). Avoid (swordfish, king mackerel, tilefish, shark, bigeye tuna).

Gestational diabetes hits 7-14% of pregnancies. Rates run higher in Asian, Hispanic, and Black women. Every pregnant person gets the 50-g glucose challenge between 24 and 28 weeks. Treatment starts with food therapy. Spread carbohydrate across meals, eat at least 175 g a day, and pair carbs with protein and fat. Add insulin or metformin if ADA targets fail (fasting under 95, 1-hour under 140, 2-hour under 120 mg/dL). For high-risk women, low-dose aspirin is the proven way to prevent pre-eclampsia.

3. Postpartum and lactation

Nursing burns about 500 kcal a day. The plan is to eat 330-400 extra kcal above your pre-pregnancy need. The rest comes from pregnancy fat stores by design. Hard postpartum dieting under 1,500 kcal cuts milk supply. Fluid need rises to about 13 cups a day. Drink to thirst plus a glass at every feed.

Postpartum thyroid problems hit 5-10% of women in the year after birth. The pattern runs hyperthyroid in months 1-3, hypothyroid in months 3-6, and resolves by month 12 in most cases. Perinatal depression hits about 1 in 7 mothers. B12, folate, and omega-3 levels each track with risk on their own. The path runs through one-carbon metabolism (a set of reactions that move methyl groups). SAMe, the methyl donor for making serotonin and dopamine, needs folate, B12, B6, and choline to form.

4. Infancy 0-6 months

The AAP, WHO, and Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics all recommend exclusive breastfeeding (only breast milk, no other food or drink) for the first 6 months. The evidence covers infection rates (NEC, gastroenteritis, ear infections), allergy, brain development, maternal weight, breast and ovarian cancer, and diabetes. Breast milk changes over time. Colostrum (the first 3-5 days) is high in protein, full of antibodies, and low in volume. Transitional milk follows for 1-2 weeks. Mature milk runs about 70 kcal per 100 mL with about 7% carbohydrate, 4% fat, and 1% protein. Foremilk runs watery. Hindmilk runs fatty.

When breastfeeding doesn't work or isn't chosen, iron-fortified infant formula is the swap. Cow-milk-based formulas are the default. Soy formula is for galactosemia (a rare metabolic disease) and the few cases of milk allergy that don't cross-react with soy. Extensively hydrolyzed formulas (Nutramigen, Alimentum) are first-line for confirmed milk allergy. Amino-acid formulas (Neocate, Elecare) are saved for the most reactive babies. The labels "organic," "European," and "goat milk" don't add real nutrition gains. FDA-regulated U.S. formulas all meet the same minimums.

Give vitamin D 400 IU a day from birth to any baby who breastfeeds at all. Breast milk runs low in vitamin D. Formula-fed babies hit 400 IU at about 32 oz a day. Iron stored before birth lasts about 4 months in term babies, less in preterm ones. So iron-rich solid foods at 6 months cover the gap.

5. Adding solid foods 6-12 months

Start solids when a baby is ready. That usually lands around 6 months. Look for head control, sitting with support, doubled birth weight, loss of the tongue-thrust reflex (pushing food back out), and interest in food. Spoon-fed purees and baby-led weaning (BLW, letting babies self-feed soft finger foods) both work in head-to-head trials. Growth and nutrient intake match. Texture moves from thin purees to thick, then soft mashed, then soft pieces, then table foods. Iron-rich foods (fortified cereal, meat, beans) and zinc-rich foods come first. No honey before 12 months (botulism risk). No cow's milk as a drink before 12 months. Yogurt and cheese in small amounts are fine. No added salt or sugar.

The biggest reversal in child nutrition advice this century is early peanut. The 2000 AAP guidance was to wait until age 3 in high-risk babies. The LEAP trial (Du Toit et al., NEJM 2015) randomized 640 babies 4-11 months old with bad eczema or egg allergy. Half ate peanut (about 6 g protein a week). Half avoided peanut through age 5. Peanut allergy at age 5 was 1.9% in the eating group and 13.7% in the avoiding group. That's an 81% relative drop. The 2017 NIAID addendum says introduce peanut at 4-6 months in high-risk babies (after testing) and routinely in lower-risk babies once other solids work. One well-run trial drove this. That's rare in nutrition.

True food allergy (the IgE kind) hits 5-8% of U.S. kids. The "Big Nine" allergens (milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, wheat, fish, shellfish, and sesame per the 2023 FASTER Act) cause most reactions. Milk, egg, soy, and wheat allergies usually go away by school age. Peanut, tree nut, and shellfish allergies usually do not.

6. Toddler 1-3 years

Food fear (neophobia) peaks between 18 and 36 months. It's a growth stage, not a disease, and it served a purpose in early human life. Toddlers often need 10-15 calm exposures before they accept a new food. One refusal is not a final answer. Food jags (eating the same thing for days) are normal too.

The Ellyn Satter Division of Responsibility is the framework that works. Parents pick what is offered, when meals and snacks happen, and where eating takes place. The child picks whether to eat and how much. Forcing ("3 more bites"), bribes ("dessert if you finish"), cooking a second meal, and letting kids snack all day each break the model. In follow-up, they predict more picky eating, not less.

Toddler calorie needs run about 1,000-1,400 kcal a day. Whole milk from age 1 helps brain myelin form. Shift to reduced-fat after age 2. Cap milk at 16-24 oz a day. More than that crowds out solid food and causes "milk anemia." Juice is capped at 4 oz a day from ages 1-3 (AAP).

7. Childhood 4-12 years

School-age nutrient needs scale with size and activity. EER (estimated energy requirement) runs about 1,200-1,800 kcal a day and rises fast at the growth spurt. Calcium RDA is 1,000 mg at ages 4-8 and rises to 1,300 mg at 9-18. That's the highest of any life stage, because peak bone mass builds through the teen years.

The "2 cups of milk a day" line gets overdone. Above 2-3 cups (16-24 oz), milk crowds out iron-rich solid food and raises iron-deficiency anemia risk. The AAP now says use dairy as one calcium and vitamin D source, not the only one.

The U.S. school meal program matters most for kids in food-insecure homes. The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 raised whole-grain and vegetable rules. The NSLP feeds about 30 million kids a day. Packed lunches usually run lower in fruits and vegetables and higher in sugar than the school meals they replace.

BMI-for-age (CDC for ages 2-18, WHO for 0-24 months) is the screening tool. Overweight starts at the 85th percentile. Obesity starts at the 95th. Severe obesity starts at 120% of the 95th. The early warning sign is height growth flattening while weight climbs. Child NAFLD (fatty liver) hit 13% by 2017 (NHANES), with rates as high as 42% in Hispanic boys with obesity. That epidemic did not exist in the 1980s.

8. Adolescence

The teen growth spurt is the second-biggest growth event of human life. Tanner stages 1-5 track puberty by breast, pubic hair, and genital changes. Nutrient needs track Tanner stage better than age in years. Iron is the highest premenopausal need (15 mg a day in menstruating girls) and the most common gap in U.S. teen girls. Calcium at 1,300 mg a day is the highest of any life stage, because 40-50% of adult peak bone mass forms in the 4 years around the growth spurt. Bone mass you don't build then, you don't get back.

The eating-disorder onset window in teens runs from age 12 to 25. That window catches most lifetime first cases of anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa has the highest death rate of any mental illness (5-10% crude). Catching it early (restricting food, fast weight loss, missed periods, social pulling-back around food, too much exercise) predicts a better outcome. Refeeding teens needs medical oversight. Refeeding syndrome causes shifts in phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium that can trigger heart arrhythmia in the first week.

The Female Athlete Triad and RED-S framework cover the low-energy cluster. That cluster includes disordered eating, missed periods, and low bone density. It hits hardest in lean-build sports like running, gymnastics, dance, and wrestling. The fix is eating enough, not bone-density drugs.

9. Adult reproductive years (not pregnant, not nursing)

The 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines lists 5 nutrients U.S. adults eat too little of: calcium, vitamin D, potassium, fiber, and iron in women who could get pregnant. The over-eaten 3: added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium. 88% of U.S. adults miss the vegetable target. 76% miss fruit (NHANES 2017-2018). Iron and folate needs split most by sex and pregnancy plans.

10. Perimenopause and menopause

Perimenopause is the 4-10 year shift before your final period. It usually starts in the early to mid 40s. Falling ovarian estradiol drives it. In the late years of this shift, bone breaks down faster than it builds. In the first 5 years after the final menstrual period, women lose about 10% of total bone mass. The fix is calcium at 1,200 mg a day (RDA rises from 1,000 at age 51), vitamin D at 600-800 IU, plus weight-bearing and resistance exercise. Bisphosphonates, denosumab, and newer bone-building drugs (teriparatide, romosozumab) come in when the DXA T-score crosses -2.5 or FRAX crosses the treatment threshold.

The second big change is body composition. Belly fat (visceral adipose tissue) rises after the final period even when weight stays flat. Resting metabolic rate drops about 100 kcal a day. Most women gain 5-7 lb across the shift with no change in habits. That's a metabolic change, not a willpower problem. Resistance training holds muscle. Protein at the high end of the adequate range (1.0-1.2 g/kg) supports it. Hot flashes break up sleep, which worsens insulin resistance.

The soy and breast cancer worry doesn't hold up. Pooled data from Asian and Western populations show whole-soy intake is neutral or a bit protective for breast cancer risk and recurrence (Chi et al., J Clin Oncol 2013; Shu et al., JAMA 2009). The American Cancer Society and AICR both back soy foods for women with a breast cancer history.

11. Older adult 65+

Sarcopenia (the loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength with age) starts in the 4th decade and speeds up after 70. By age 80, the average adult has lost 30-40% of peak muscle mass. The cause is anabolic resistance. The same dose of dietary protein triggers less muscle protein synthesis in older muscle. The mechanism runs through lower mTORC1 signaling and a higher leucine threshold. The 0.8 g/kg RDA misses older-adult need by 25-50%. PROT-AGE (Bauer et al., JAMDA 2013) recommends 1.0-1.2 g/kg for healthy older adults and 1.2-1.5 in acute or chronic illness. Spread it at about 30 g per meal to cross the leucine threshold each time.

The anorexia of aging is the appetite drop that comes with normal aging. The causes stack up. Taste and smell fade. Stomach stretching slows. Postprandial CCK and PYY (gut hormones that signal fullness) rise. Polypharmacy alters taste. Depression, isolation, dental issues, and dysphagia (trouble swallowing) all add up. Losing 5% of body weight over 6 months or 10% over a year is a red flag.

B12 absorption falls after age 50 because of atrophic gastritis (a thinning stomach lining, in 10-30% of adults over 50). That cuts intrinsic factor and stomach acid, which normally free B12 from food. Crystalline B12 from fortified foods or supplements skips that step. Vitamin D rises from 600 to 800 IU at age 70. Pooled meta-analyses show about a 20% drop in falls at 700-1,000 IU a day (Bischoff-Ferrari, BMJ 2009). Hydration risk rises too. Thirst sense fades, the kidneys can't concentrate urine as well, and diuretics push water out. Drink on a schedule, don't wait for thirst. Falls are the top cause of fatal and nonfatal injury in adults 65+. The food levers are vitamin D, protein, calcium, and less alcohol.

12. Frailty and end of life

Frailty is a clinical syndrome. Fried's phenotype says 3 or more of these 5: unintentional weight loss, exhaustion, weak grip, slow walking speed, low physical activity. About 15% of community-dwelling adults over 65 are frail. Another 45% are pre-frail. Once frailty sets in, resistance training and enough protein can partly reverse it. In late cases the path bends down.

At the end of life, the goal of nutrition therapy changes. In hospice and at the end of advanced dementia or cancer, the patient often stops wanting to eat. Force-feeding or feeding-tube placement in late dementia does not extend life, improve function, or cut aspiration risk. The American Geriatrics Society and Choosing Wisely campaign both recommend against routine PEG (feeding-tube) placement in advanced dementia. Comfort feeding (small amounts of foods the person likes, by mouth, with no pressure to hit targets) is the standard of care. The shift is from extending biological life to easing distress.

Frequently asked questions

Is breast really better?

The evidence base is large and consistent: lower rates of NEC, gastroenteritis, otitis, asthma, atopic dermatitis, SIDS, and childhood obesity and leukemia in breastfed infants, plus maternal benefits including faster postpartum weight loss and lower breast and ovarian cancer risk. Effect sizes are modest but aggregate. The pragmatic counterweight: not breastfeeding is sometimes the right choice (medication, trauma, supply, mental health, work without protected pumping), and formula-fed infants thrive.

Do I need a prenatal at preconception?

Yes, ideally 3 months before trying. The minimum pill covers folate (400 mcg), iodine (150 mcg), vitamin D (600+ IU), iron, and choline. Many drugstore prenatals skip iodine or choline. Check the label. With a prior NTD-affected pregnancy, take 4 mg folic acid.

Is fish safe in pregnancy?

Yes, with species discrimination. FDA/EPA 2017: best choices (salmon, sardines, shrimp, tilapia, pollock, anchovies, herring, trout, catfish — 2–3/week); good (halibut, mahi-mahi, snapper, yellowfin tuna — one/week); avoid (swordfish, king mackerel, tilefish, shark, bigeye tuna, marlin, orange roughy). Two servings/week of low-mercury fatty fish supplies DHA without exceeding methylmercury limits.

Should toddlers drink whole or skim milk?

Whole from 12–24 months, then transition. The fat supports brain myelination and the calorie density helps small stomachs hit energy needs. After age two the AAP shifts to reduced-fat or skim. Newer evidence (Vanderhout et al., AJCN 2020) suggests whole milk through preschool may not increase obesity risk, but the standard remains 1% or skim after age two.

Is whole milk really worse than 2%?

For most adults eating a reasonable diet, the practical gap is small. The cardiovascular case for low-fat dairy rests on saturated-fat swap-out. Counter-evidence (the PURE cohort and dairy-fat meta-analyses) says dairy fat may be neutral at modest intakes. The Dietary Guidelines still recommend low-fat or fat-free dairy, but the case has softened since 2015.

Do older adults need MORE protein than younger adults?

Yes. The 0.8 g/kg RDA underestimates older-adult requirement because of anabolic resistance. PROT-AGE recommends 1.0–1.2 g/kg for healthy older adults at ~30 g per meal (≈2.5 g leucine). In acute illness, target rises to 1.2–1.5 g/kg. The exception is severe renal impairment, where protein is intentionally restricted.

When should I introduce peanut, egg, and other allergens?

Early, not late. LEAP, EAT, PETIT, and the 2017 NIAID addendum reversed the old "delay allergens" advice. For high-risk infants (severe eczema, egg allergy), introduce peanut at 4–6 months after pediatric evaluation. For lower-risk infants, introduce peanut and other allergens (egg, dairy, wheat, soy, tree nut butters, sesame, fish) routinely once other solids are tolerated. Avoid whole nuts (choking). Keep allergens in the diet consistently once introduced.

Is "carb cycling" a real thing for menopause?

No. The marketing claim says midlife women should cycle carb intake with a (often absent) cycle. No controlled trial supports it. The real changes (worse glucose tolerance with falling estrogen, more belly fat) respond to general carb-quality fixes. Lower glycemic load. More fiber. More protein. More resistance training. The "cycling" framing is the kind of marketing Duyff's junk-science red-flags section catches.

Sources

1. Cox, J. T., Sullivan, C. S. "Nutrition in Pregnancy and Lactation." Chapter 14 in Raymond, J. L., Morrow, K., eds., Krause and Mahan's Food and the Nutrition Care Process, 16th edition (Elsevier, 2023). IOM 2009 weight-gain ranges; pregnancy and lactation DRIs; common deficiencies; lactation physiology.
2. McKean, K. N., Mazon, M. O. (Seattle Children's). "Nutrition in Infancy." Chapter 15 in Krause 16e. Breast milk composition; formula categories; complementary feeding through year one.
3. Larson, N., Leak, T. M., Stang, J. S. "Nutrition in Adolescence." Chapter 17 in Krause 16e. Tanner staging; adolescent DRIs; eating-disorder onset; RED-S/Female Athlete Triad.
4. Raymond, J. L., Callihan, L. "Nutrition in Aging." Chapter 20 in Krause 16e. Geriatric physiology; MNA / MNA-SF; sarcopenia; anorexia of aging.
5. Garner, C. D. "Nutrition in Pregnancy." Chapter 52 in Tucker, K. L., Duggan, C. P., Jensen, G. L., et al., eds., Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 12th edition (Jones & Bartlett, 2026). Nutrient demands; pre-eclampsia; gestational diabetes.
6. Bales, C. W., Johnson, M. A. "Nutrition in Older Adults." Chapter 56 in MNHD 12e. Protein 1.0–1.2 g/kg debate; B12, vitamin D, calcium at risk.
7. Gropper, S. S., Smith, J. L., Carr, T. P. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, 8th edition (Cengage, 2022). One-carbon metabolism (Ch 9); urea cycle and mTOR-leucine signaling (Ch 6); fed-fast integration (Ch 7).
8. Duyff, R. L. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Complete Food and Nutrition Guide, 5th edition (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017). "Eating for two" debunking; pregnancy fish list; Satter Division of Responsibility; LEAP-era allergen introduction.
9. Du Toit, G., Roberts, G., Sayre, P. H., et al. "Randomized Trial of Peanut Consumption in Infants at Risk for Peanut Allergy." New England Journal of Medicine 2015;372:803–813. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1414850. The LEAP trial.
10. Bath, S. C., Steer, C. D., Golding, J., Emmett, P., Rayman, M. P. "Effect of inadequate iodine status in UK pregnant women on cognitive outcomes in their children: results from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC)." The Lancet 2013;382(9889):331–337.
11. Bauer, J., Biolo, G., Cederholm, T., et al. "Evidence-based recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: a position paper from the PROT-AGE Study Group." JAMDA 2013;14(8):542–559.
12. Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Dawson-Hughes, B., Staehelin, H. B., et al. "Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials." BMJ 2009;339:b3692.
13. Institute of Medicine. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines (National Academies Press, 2009). The IOM 2009 gestational weight gain ranges.
14. American Academy of Pediatrics, Section on Breastfeeding. "Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk." Policy statement, Pediatrics 2022;150(1):e2022057988.
15. FDA / EPA. "Advice About Eating Fish: For Those Who Might Become or Are Pregnant or Breastfeeding and Children Ages 1 to 11 Years." 2017 (updated 2021). The pregnancy fish list.
16. Satter, E. Child of Mine: Feeding with Love and Good Sense (Bull Publishing, 1991, revised 2000). The Division of Responsibility framework.

Related glossary terms

• Folic acid
• DHA
• EPA
• Colostrum
• Exclusive breastfeeding
• Baby-led weaning
• Gestational diabetes
• Sarcopenia
• Frailty
• Menopause
• Puberty
• Tanner stage